History and Future of Course Authoring Technologies
Bob Jensen at Trinity University

Table of Contents

A Snapshot from 1994
A Snapshot from 1999
Trends in Course Authoring Software Attributes
Predictions for the 21st Century

Online versus Onsite Universities in the 21st Century

Links to Online Courses and Programs

Appendix
Additional Readings

A Snapshot from 1994

The purpose of this paper is to briefly trace the short, and in some cases short-lived, history of hypertext and hypermedia course authoring software packages.  I will also summarize the early attributes of course authoring software vis-a-vis attributes of new and surviving packages.

In 1994, Petrea Sandlin and I wrote a book entitled Electronic Teaching and Learning: Trends in Adapting to Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Networks in Higher Education.  That book covers a lot of the early history of applications of computing technologies to the authoring of documents in courses or the authoring of complete courses.  First there was hypertext navigation software that roots as far back as the 1940s, but hypertext software really did not have a serious impact on training and education until the 1980s when  the Owl Corporation developed a DOS commercial course authoring package called GUIDE.  Prior to that, there were hypertext training and education applications, but these did not entail use of off-the-shelf software.  Projects like the Plato project at the University of Illinois and various military and corporate training applications entailed software development alongside applications development.  A DOS outgrowth of Plato software became known at Tencore.  However, Tencore was slow to adapt to the Windows operating system and lost market shares to upstart companies like Asymetrix Corporation and others listed below.

Following the introduction of Owl's Guide, a raft of off-the-shelf options appeared in the 1980s.  There were two types of course authoring options that are discussed below.  The Course Management System (CMS) software had many features that were not available in what Jensen and Sandlin defined as Alternative Software.  In Chapter 3, they identified ten CMS packages for computerizing complete courses.   They started with hypertext utilities and then added hypermedia authoring features in the early 1990s.  Most of the established products below have survived to 1999 with sales for corporate training, but virtually none of them ever had profitable sales to colleges and universities.  The ten leading 1994  CMS packages identified and discussed on considerable detail in Chapter 3 of Jensen and Sandlin (1994) were as follows:

Most of the above CMS packages were designed for floppy disk or CD-ROM delivery and management of multimedia courses.  These packages peaked in popularity about 1995.  Aside from fierce competition, the major cause of their decline was the World Wide Web that commenced in 1990 but did not become popular until HTML authoring and editing software packages became available in around 1995.  With simple HTML authoring, students can obtain hypertext and hypermedia navigation from documents served up all over the world from a single server.  Equally important, the HTML documents can be updated in real time.  These two huge advantages of web authoring triggered the downslide of CMS course authoring for both corporate training and higher education.  

One of the problems with CD-ROM authoring is that authors and publishing firms in general did not make profits on costly CD-ROM books and courses.  Corporations make good use of them in training programs, but the Internet is rapidly becoming more popular due to ease of access and ease of updating course materials on web server files.  "There are 25,000 CD-ROMs sitting there with nobody making any money from them" according to Marc Canter in "Inventing New Venues," NewMedia, August 1999, pg.17.  For an earlier (August 1998) analysis of what went wrong, see http://newmedia.com/NewMedia/98/09/feature/trip.html.

In addition to the above ten packages that were viable CMS course authoring packages in 1994, there were at least 40 other hypertext and hypermedia software "Alternative Option" packages that did not offer full CMS management options.  However, these other alternatives were nevertheless widely used to author files for training and education courses.  These are listed along with some video software options in  Chapter 3 of Jensen and Sandlin (1994).  Most of these have also disappeared from sight at the end of the 20th Century.  Once again the main contributing factors were intense competition and inefficiency and ineffectiveness of CD-ROM authoring tools as web authoring tools.  Some of the Macintosh packages disappeared as Apple Corporation's market share dwindled.  Others just did not convert the DOS software to the Windows operating system for PCs.

It might be noted that in addition to over 50 course authoring tools in 1994, there were many intensely-competitive presentation software packages.  In 1994 these included  SPC's Harvard Graphics, Gold Disk's Astound, Asymetrix's Compel, Microsoft's PowerPoint, Macromedia's Action, Micrografx's Charisma, Just-Ask-Me, On-The-Air, Lotus Corporation's Freelance, Word Perfect's Presentations, Stanford Graphics, Special Delivery, Q/Media, Zuma Group's Curtain Call, Multimedia Design’s mPower, and others listed in Appendix 6 of Jensen and Sandlin (1994).  By 1999, these have been eclipsed by Microsoft PowerPoint.  None of these presentation packages were hypertext or hypermedia authoring tools.  For example, users could navigate "pages" nonlinearly, but it was not possible to add scripts to "hot words" that would perform scripted actions such as navigation to particular words and paragraphs on other "pages."  

 

A Snapshot from 1999

In addition to course management and examination grading utilities, the above CMS course authoring packages had "scripting" options that allowed authors to attach scripts to objects such as hot words.  These scripts afforded authors an opportunity to be highly creative and not be restricted to pre-programmed templates.  In most instances the scripting languages were proprietary.  The best-known scripting language was Lingo used in Macromedia's Authorware and Director.  The Asymetrix ToolBook proprietary scripting language is called OpenScript.  This was both a blessing and a curse.  It was a blessing in terms of opportunities for authoring creativity.  It was a curse in terms of learning how to write scripts without syntax errors.  One of the reasons CMS packages did not sell well to instructors was the time it took to become skilled at adding scripts.

Largely because of scripting complexities and lack of authoring friendliness and relatively high licensing fees, the CMS authoring packages never sold well in academe.  They were sustained by the corporate and government training market where technicians could be employed to write the scripts.  In most instances what sustained the companies was the consulting side of the business where employees of the software vendor were employed as development consultants to write training courses.  Colleges and universities usually did not have the resources to employ these consultants to create education courses.

As we approach the end of the 20th Century, most of the above CMS products have either disappeared entirely or are being drastically re-engineered for web delivery.  Vendors of CMS packages have not made money on software sales.  Those that managed to stay in business did so on the basis of corporate training program consulting.  In most instances, the survivors had to adopt totally different underlying software more suited to web delivery of courses in place of CD-ROM delivery.  For example, my favorite CD-ROM course authoring alternative was ToolBook from Asymetrix.  Although this is still and excellent alternative for CD-ROM authoring of books and courses, Asymetrix has announced that it is no longer going to feature or upgrade ToolBook programmed in its proprietary OpenScript.  Even though Asymetrix developed a web reader called Neuron for ToolBooks, web delivery of Neuron books over the Internet is neither efficient nor effective.  An analogy that I previously used is that web serving of Toolbooks coded in OpenScript or Authorware courses coded in Lingo are like pushing 800 lb gorillas through a garden hose.  

In 1999 the proprietary scripting market share has been taken over by HTML authoring software (notably Microsoft FrontPage), presentation software (notably Microsoft PowerPoint), and Adobe Acrobat.  However, since those popular options lack utilities for dynamic interactions online, there is a move toward adding dynamic HTML (DHTML) authoring software (e.g., Macromedia Dreamweaver), Java, and other server-side web authoring software listed below.  The most significant happening in 1999 was the addition of utilities in Microsoft Excel 2000 and Access 2000 to automatically convert Visual Basic codes into DHTML codes that can be read inside web browsers such as Internet Explorer.  Microsoft's addition of round tripping allows for reverse coding back into Visual Basic.

Probably most significant in recent years is the emergence of web authoring packages for server-side (shell) delivery of interactive courses.  In some cases, the new packages are being delivered by companies whose former authoring software is dead or dying.  For example, tbtAuthor from HyperGraphics Corporation is dead as a CMS package, but the new CyberClass web servers at HyperGraphics Corporation have kept the company alive and well.  In some instances, universities originated server "shells" that evolved quickly into full-featured commercial web authoring packages.  For example, a large market share is now held by WebCT that commenced at the University of British Columbia.  The rapidly-rising Blackboard system commenced at Cornell University.  Some alternatives are lesser-known and are still marketed from universities such as Mallard from the University of Illinois, Oncourse available from Indiana University, and Serf available from the University of Delaware.  Beware that free packages or packages still sold by universities often do not have some of the upgrade features found in alternatives that were developed initially at universities and then sold to corporations for further development and marketing.

At the moment there are two types of systems.  One type might be called an "internal web authoring server system" in the sense that the author or the author's institution must provide and maintain the web servers.  For example, WebCT can be installed on internal servers, but the company that sells and develops WebCT does not offer server space for authors.  In contrast, CyberClass offers external web servers such that neither authors nor their institutions have to serve up courses locally.  Other companies like Blackboard have both internal and external web server options.  A number of internal-system course authoring alternatives are shown below:

Full-Line (Course Management, Interactive, Chat Room, Multimedia, Web Authoring)  Internal System Web Authoring Shell Alternatives That Do Not Provide External Servers or Course Advertising, Registration, and Billing Services:

Asymetrix Librarian (Ended) Convene CourseInfo (Blackboard)
FirstClass Hot Potatoes (free) IntraKal
Learning Space Mallard MentorWare
Oncourse and Angel PHP Real Education (eCollege)
Serf TopClass WebCB
WebCT WebMentor Enterprise CourseLinks

The majority of the above vendors have just begun providing external-system options at the time of of this writing.  Note that some publishing firms will assist internal-system webmasters in installing the software.  For example, see McGraw-Hill Learning Architecture (MHLA) for TopClass and WebCT discounted installations on campus servers.  Macmillan Publishing has partnered witth TopClass.

In most instances, the vendors of internal-system authoring shells are now seeking to increase sales by providing space on off-campus servers that they maintain with their own technicians.  In some external-system interactive courseware alternatives, there is no fee to the institution for installing the interactive courses.  CyberClass allows instructors to install course material for free provided the enrolled students purchase a password to use the system.  Students purchase passwords to enter the CyberClass external web server much like they purchase the textbook for a course.  In some instances such as CyberClass, publishers like South-Western Publishing Company and Glencoe/McGraw-Hill have made course materials available for selected textbooks if instructors choose to adopt those books for the course.  Students may obtain passwords at a discounted price if the publisher has negotiated a discount for students using particular online text materials.

There are also some flat rate external-system provider such as Convene.  In those instances, instructors or institutions pay a flat rate no matter how many students use the hosted server.

In other options, there is neither a fee to the institution for installing the courses nor a fee to the students who use the online course materials.  Jenzabar is probably the best-known external courseware server that is free to institutions and students.  However, students must endure advertising when accessing online course materials.  In order to provide this free service, Jenzabar relies upon advertising revenues.

Full-Line (Course Management, Interactive, Chat Room, Multimedia, Web Authoring)  External System Web Authoring Shell Alternatives That Do Provide External Servers:

Convene

CourseInfo's (Blackboard.com)

COLTS Complete Online Teaching System 

CyberClass  

Education to Go

IntraKal 

LearnLinc

Lotus Learning Space via Interliant

MentorWare 

Real Education (eCollege) (There are even eCollege scholarships and full degree programs)

JenzaEducator (Free software and server hosting with advertising) 

Pearson Education's Companion Websites (Prentice Hall)

Viviance

No frills free "unlimited" free server space (but no course authoring shells and software):

XOOM at http://xoom.com/home/ 

TrellixWeb at http://www.trellix.com/ 

Other free server space alternatives:    http://cas.uah.edu/whittena/mis114/fr_web_sp/webdef.htm

 

Among the external-system web server options, there are two sub-categories of options.  One option allows instructors to install courses on an external server only if the courses have matriculated students who pay for passwords to the system.  For example, the University of Northern Arizona (UNA) offers more than 60 online courses in eCollege for student registered at the UNA.  

Microsoft Corporation and eCollege.com are collaborating to offer free (NOTE: connect time charges may apply for your internet connection) courses to faculty and staff in higher education. These courses will focus on using information technology in general, and Microsoft products in particular, to improve teaching and learning. The first of these online courses will be "Presentation Technology: Teaching and Learning with PowerPoint 2000". The first offering of this online course will begin on February 15th, 2000. More detailed information on the course, registration information, and technical requirements, can be found at http://microsoft.ecollege.com/  in the Microsoft Faculty Center.

Welcome to the Microsoft Faculty Center, powered by the eCollege.com course delivery system. This Center is intended to help you, the faculty and instructional staff of educational institutions around the world, build rich and dynamic learning environments which will empower individuals at all stages of their lives and careers, enable access to lifelong learning, and to help us build a connected learning community.

Our inaugural activity at the Microsoft Faculty Center is to provide online Microsoft Office 2000 productivity courses for faculty members, powered by the new eCollege System 4.0. Our first online course, starting February 15th, 2000, and running until February 29th, 2000, will focus on using Microsoft PowerPoint 2000 effectively to improve teaching and learning.

Inaugural Course

With PowerPoint 2000, you and your students can make learning more dynamic by creating presentations of classroom materials and projects. You can use graphics, text, movies, sounds, and the Internet to share information on any topic. Using PowerPoint 2000 templates, you can quickly and easily create presentations for many purposes, including lectures, research reports, meeting handouts and agendas, speaker introductions, and flyers. Learn more or register now.

About the Technology

We are pleased that eCollege.com is providing the technology to power the Microsoft Faculty Center website and the online courses. eCollege.com's Web-based course delivery systems are designed to promote the richest human interaction possible in the online environment, including the best communications tools available, while remaining totally Web-based and demanding nothing more from students than a Web browser and a 28.8 modem connection. eCollege.com's eTeaching Solutionssm include eToolKitsm, eCompanionsm, and eCoursesm and we invite you to view a demo or sign up for a free trial.

A second option allows virtually anyone to put up a course even if the instructor is not affiliated with any school.  These services provide software, server space, course advertising, student registration, and royalty payments to course instructors/developers.  In some cases such as Blackboard.com, options are available for either matriculated students at a school or for students who register with Blackboard.com directly.

To date, the only full-line provider of free server space with free student use that I know about is Jenzabar at http://www.jenzabar.com/.  Boston College uses Jenzabar.  Students must, however, put up with advertising on course pages.  If can read the following at http://www.wbz.com/prd1/now/template.display?p_story=160690&p_who=wbz:

"Previously, students could get course information, calendaring, program information, etc., but they had to go to multiple and confusing sources. With Jenzabar.com, they only need to go to one central source."

The company, Jenzabar.com, is centrally located in Cambridge, Massachusetts amongst dozens of colleges and universities, has its finger on the pulse of what students really want at their desktops.

The core of all students' and professors' weekly routines is based on course schedules, and has developed a personalized "front page" featuring an individual weekly calendar. The entries in the calendar provide links to each course's "home page" and students can add appointments, academic or extra-curricular, directly into this personalized calendar.

In addition, professors, administrators or career counselors have the option of inviting students to campus-wide, course-wide or class-wide events by posting announcements to other users' front pages. Now college students can stay informed by links to CNN or local headline news. Students also receive email announcements on campus or career events posted by administration and campus organizations.

Another feature of the site connects students is the Personal Profile option, which serves as a "virtual facebook". This provides detailed information about each student, including their name, address, major, work experience and interests. This page can be used as a resource for students to get to know each other, making it easier for them to form clubs or study groups.

One professor of accounting stated the following:

I have been approached by Jenzabar.com who is offering me all the space I want to mount web pages, course syllabi, class distributions, etc. forever.  My students would go to their website and gain access to all I've posted there.  One of the links off the Jenzabar homepage is for shopping aimed at college students.  There are no links from the course pages to shopping sites.  No information they obtain about students will be used to sell to them directly.  A clear advantage is that I'd be using their servers, not our school's. They provide web page shells, calendars, etc.  The question of ethics, forcing students to a website where shopping is available, remains.
Elliot Kamlet [ ekamlet@BINGHAMTON.EDU ]
Binghamton University
Binghamton, New York 13902

 

Limited-Line External System Web Authoring Course Alternatives That Do Provide External Servers, Course Advertising, Registration, Billing Services, and Instructor Royalties:

Paul Allen's Asymetrix Click2Learn

Mike Milken's Virtual Education Workspace

Full-Line External System Web Authoring Course Alternatives That Do Provide External Servers, Course Advertising, Registration, Billing Services, and Instructor Royalties:

CourseInfo's (Blackboard.com)

CyberClass

University Access (Features video and courses from leading Ivy League business faculty)

The main difference between limited-line and full-line options is that limited-line options may restrict the course author to proprietary software and not allow more full-featured, hypermedia software to be imported.  In full-line options, it is sometimes even possible for instructors to merely send in audio or video tapes and request that the system digitize and serve up the hypermedia.  I really expect most of the internal-system web authoring developers to open up external server web sites and become more like Blackboard.com and Cyberclass.

The Nov/Dec issue of Syllabus mentioned above has a Buyers Guide that is not posted online.  A few of the items mentioned in pp. 34-42 are as follows:

Network/Course Management Software updates include the following:

Online Communications and Resource updates include

 

 

To the above lists of options, I might add a number of special-purpose authoring software options that are used in course authoring but not necessarily for authoring the entire course.

Special-Purpose Authoring Software:

Some of the alternatives listed below are working toward becoming full-line internal-system and/or external-system server providers.  Others merely seek to hang on to their market niches.

askSam Electronic Publisher and Web Publisher

CD Motion for Video CD

Course Builder

Creative Course Writer

Designer's Edge (can be integrated into PowerPoint)

Digital Chisel

DreamFactory

Everest (Windows) and Summit (DOS)

Faculty Desktop Course Management System from Datatel

Hyperties

Icon Author

GoLive

Macromedia Dreamweaver 

Macromedia Director  

Macromedia Flash 

Network Discussion Group (Chat Room) Software

RB Player for Interactive Game Authoring

Real Publisher (an inexpensive way to serve up RealAudio and RealVideo.)

Story Vision

TeamFusion for Collaborative Team Authoring

Xpower

Web Audio and Video Authoring and Playback Software

Thanks go to Chris Nolan for the lead on the following web site about 
"Putting Your Course Online" http://www.library.okstate.edu/dept/dls/prestamo/nom/titlepage.htm 

 

 

Where does WebTV stand amidst all of these alternatives?  I am not very optimistic, but others are more optimistic.  According to David Welton of CSU-Chico, distance education will get a boost in the arm from WebTV delivery in cheap set-top boxes on television sets.  WebTV greatly improves upon television reading of text and has many of the advantages taking a course on the computer.  One drawback that remains is that WebTV is unable to display multiple windows like computers display multiple windows.  Also Java Applet support is still not available on WebTV.  However, many persons who watch TV but shy away from the complexities of a computer may be drawn to interactive education on their TV sets.   The full article by David Welton is entitled "A Web-Based Distance Learning Experience:  WebTV," in Syllabus, June 1999, 56-57 (the online version is not yet online, but it will soon be posted to http://www.syllabus.com/ ).

Also see the WebTV Network at http://www.webtv

 

Trends in Course Authoring Software Attributes

 In Chapter 3 of Jensen and Sandlin (1994), the following "core" attributes were used to distinguish full-line course authoring software from alternatives that did did not have all of these attributes.  These attributes, some of which are not yet available in modern web authoring software,  are as follows for 1994 for CD-ROM course authoring:

(CORE  01) Authoring and Runtime Versions of the CMS Software.  With proprietary scripting of CMS software, software to run the learning materials was known as runtime software, reader software, viewers, etc.  "Runtime" versions of the software that will run the lessons on a computer but do not allow the user to modify, edit, or update the lessons.  Runtime was a big problem with CMS software.   Runtime software enables students to utilize electronic books and other course materials without having to buy any authoring license. In the 1980s, course vendors charged authors runtime fees.  But in the 1990s, competitive pressures forced most software developers to drop the runtime fees.  In the late 1990s, vendors also developed web runtime (browser plug-in) software that generally does not work very well.  The trend in the in 1999 is to author in HTML, DHTML, VBscript, JavaScript, Java, or some other software that will run directly in a web browser such as Internet Explorer.  Runtime is not an issue in modern web authoring shells since authored materials are designed to be run in web browsers like Internet Explorer.  One problem, however, is that newer DHTML authoring software will not run in all browsers.  In some cases, students must have Microsoft Office 2000 installed with at least Version 5.00 of Internet Explorer.  See http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/dhtml/excel01.htm.

 

(CORE  02) Student Tracking and Course Record Keeping.  These utilities allow the progress of each student to be automatically monitored and reported upon throughout an entire course.  Student tracking and progress reporting are the main CMS core features that usually distinguish CMS vendors from their rivals that sell animation, hypertext, and hypermedia authoring and runtime software.

 

(CORE 03) Examination Templates and Grading.  Questions may be authored in a variety of templates, including templates for essay questions.  Examinations may be graded and recorded automatically.  Templates are provided for ease of designating point weightings and lesson branching contingent upon student responses or total examination scores.  All CMS and web server shell systems all have examination generating utilities.  Most options also allow for essay tests, and some options will even have some (limited) essay test grading utilities.

 

(CORE  04) Interactive Branching Options.  This allows the response of an instructor/student to determine what part of a lesson is encountered at the next stage of the teaching/learning process.  Some software is more menu driven than others in interactive processes.  Interactive branching utilities are features of CMS packages that are often lacking in rival products from non-CMS vendors who rely more upon menu choosing (clicking) than interactive branching based upon a student's responses to questions and problems.

 

(CORE  05) Software Switching Utilities.  Runtime software switching options allow instructors or students to shift from a CMS lesson into other software such as Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access.  This feature is not available on most modern-day web authoring shells.  Software switching is much easier on earlier CD-ROM systems since the other software files (such as xls and mdb files) can be included on the CD-ROM.  Downloading these files from the web can be tedious, especially when they are very large files. 

 

(CORE  06) Student Written and/or Oral Response Options.  Most CMS vendors have runtime utilities that allow students to write answers that both appear on the screen and are recorded into the records.  The next phase will be to have utilities for displaying and recording audio responses.  One of the most significant emerging technologies on the scene is voice input/output for computers.  Voice recognition and transcription will eventually become commonplace in the next decade.

 

(CORE  07) Authoring Software Allowing Instructors to Render Animated and Colored Computer Graphics.  Animation entails movement of an image or partial image (e.g., graph component, equation symbol, background highlights, borders, text, financial statement segment, elements of a data table, etc.).   The software animation capabilities vary greatly as to animation speed controls that adjust to computer speeds and ease of animation authoring. 

 

(CORE  08) Media Clipping Utilities.  Most course authoring systems require that authors first capture audio and video files in specialized capturing software.  Afterwards, however, some of the high-end authoring packages had clip generating utilities that allowed authors to feature clips from large multimedia files.  For example, from a single large audio file, the author might scatter hundreds or thousands of segments (clips) in a course without having to store each clip as a separate file.  Other features such as fade-ins could be added.   The clipping utilities available in high-end CD-ROM authoring systems like ToolBook are not yet available in modern-day shell software for internal-system or external-system servers.  The server authoring software in this and many other areas is much more limited than in the heavy-duty CD-ROM authoring software like ToolBook, Quest, and Authorware.

 

(CORE  09) Multiple-Image Files.  Multiple graphics and text screens can be combined into a single lesson file in CMS authoring.  This differs from older versions of graphics software "slide" shows and paintbrush software where each screen had to be stored as a separate file.  Such attributes are now commonplace but they were not common in the early years.

(CORE 10) Applications Consulting.  Nearly all CMS vendors have consulting divisions that, for a fee, assist authors or entirely prepare training courses, textbook supplements, etc.  Most high-end authoring software vendors still have consulting divisions. 

In 1999, there are various new and extremely important core attributes in web authoring software that were not available in 1994 for CD-ROM authoring.  Most of these have become commonplace in high-end web server shells.  Examples of the newer core attributes are liste

 

(CORE 11) Streaming Audio/Video.  In the early days of multimedia on the web, audio and video files had to be fully downloaded before users could commence playback.  This led to long and distracting pauses in the flow of learning material.  Modern-day web authoring shells have streaming audio and video that will commence playback almost immediately and play on a "streaming" basis on-the-fly without the downloading pauses.

(CORE 12) Chat Rooms.  In the early days of web interactions, communications were mainly asynchronous email messages.  More recent web authoring shells have software for synchronous communications called "chat rooms."  Email messages will appear to all members of the group or entire class as they are typed.  Users do not even have to wait until the message is completed before they can start to read what is being typed.  Chat rooms may also have video and audio messaging capabilities.

(CORE 13)  Threaded Messages.  In the early days, students had to creatively file course messages if they wanted to retrieve messages or portions of messages dealing with particular topics.  In modern courseware, these messages can be easily threaded so that the system links messages on topics rather than forcing students to invent their own threading schemes.

(CORE 14)  Synchronous Visualization and Audio Aids.  These are commonly white boards and document cameras that display images to groups of students or all students in the class.  Some software now makes narration possible as images are presented.  For example RealPresenter allows instructors to annotate a PowerPoint presentation with audio then convert it to RealVideo. 

(CORE 15) Software for Collaborative Workgroups.  Collaborative writing software makes it especially easy for members of teams and groups to collaborate on a single document even though the members are physically located on different parts of the globe.

(CORE 16) Database Reporting and Web Site Statistics.  In addition to course management software for grading and grade book recording, website software can also record document usage statistics, frequency of student comments and messages, and other data that is impossible or impractical to record in live classrooms.  User tracking can also be recorded (i.e., tracking of the ordering of document usage and web site visitations by a student).

(CORE 17)  Online Help at All Times.  When students have troubles running the system, it is very important that various levels of help be available at all times, including help from live technicians on the software usage.  It becomes especially important when students depend upon external-system servers for which there is no computing center on campus to complain to about connections and service.

 

Accounting Education Illustrations

In some cases, the courses are mounted on external servers that provide free web space but do not contain web authoring shells.  An example is provided by Duncan Williamson.

 

Predictions for the 21st Century


Prestige universities are preparing to deliver graduate courses on the Internet.

 Course provider  uNext.com recently announced partnerships with the University of Chicago, Stanford University, Carnegie Mellon University, and the London School of Economics and Political Science to deliver graduate courses over the Internet.

UNext.com is dedicated to making high quality education available anywhere and anytime. We serve those who understand that thriving in today's competitive knowledge-based economy demands a continual advancement in their knowledge and skills. In short, we provide companies, and the individuals who work for them, the most effective means possible to increase their human capital.

Our goal is to create powerful learning communities that marry the world's most respected academic scholars and institutions with the global reach and interactive capabilities of the Internet.

Our first learning community is Cardean, designed to address the business education needs of professional working adults.
http://www.unext.com/ 

Columbia University (under the direction of Ann Kirschner) is working toward putting Columbia's core courses  on the Internet.  Columbia actually formed a private corporation to manage the online delivery. This may set a precedent for private universities.  

For the Graduate School of Business, Columbia will use UNext ccourses at http://www.unext.com/See http://www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/pr/19513.htm.

 

Columbia University has established a company, Morningside Ventures, Inc. (MV), to create an online learning center to produce and distribute high-quality educational resources.

The company, which will develop an overall new media strategy for Columbia, will compete in the commercial marketplace for learning and will build strategic alliances with businesses that have significant reach on the Internet such as search engines, portals, Internet and broadband access points and news information sites.

Ann Kirschner, former vice president of interactive programming and development for the National Football League, has been named MV’s president and CEO, and Vikram Nagrani, a former principal at Morgan Stanley, has been named the company's chief operating officer.

This new venture will consider the feasibility of a wide range of innovative education models that would augment traditional, campus-based Columbia education programs and will consider the entire spectrum of academic disciplines from arts and sciences to law and medicine.

In one dimension of this effort, Columbia, through its Graduate School of Business, has already reached an agreement with UNEXT.com, a start-up company, to provide education material primarily for post-graduate education, probably courses in finance, accounting and marketing. This is a non-exclusive agreement to license intellectual property, the rights to which Columbia will retain.

“Columbia will continue to offer its traditional, campus-based degree programs. Indeed, applications to our undergraduate and graduate schools are at record levels,” President George Rupp said. “However, interactive, online, multimedia programs will be among the most important educational developments in the 21st century. We believe it vital that Columbia, both because of its academic strengths and its research in new media technologies, should be a leader in this movement. The content of education, whether on campus or online, is best provided by outstanding colleges and universities.”

Provost and Dean of Faculties Jonathan Cole added, “The mode of production and consumption of knowledge is undergoing changes no less dramatic than the changes from a pre-industrial to industrial society. Knowledge — access to it and the creation of it — will be the engine that will fuel change in the 21st century. Columbia must lead in the development of quality in this domain. We will continue to preserve all that is great in our current research and teaching structure, and develop, through digital media, new ways of enhancing still further that quality. That is what we are trying to do in establishing Morningside Ventures.”


Those of you following my bemoaning of the lack of leadership among top business schools in educational technologies, may find the following article of interest.  

Richard Schmalensee, the new dean of the Sloan School of Management at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has shouldered the task of training the next generation of executives for the ''New Economy.'' Already he has started to shift the curriculum to focus more on the Internet and entrepreneurship. While running the school is his main job, he is perhaps best known for his work earlier this year as an expert witness testifying on behalf of Microsoft Corp. at the government's antitrust trial.

Article 7 of 21, Article ID: 9906160191
Published on 06/14/99, SAN JOSE MERCURY NEWS  http://www.mercurycenter.com/ 

You can read the following at http://mitsloan.mit.edu/cftest/buildDome.cfm?page=http://mitsloan.mit.edu/news/releases/1999/launch.html

MIT Sloan Dean Richard Schmalensee announced plans to offer MBA students a new Electronic Commerce and Marketing management track expected to be ready for student enrollment by the fall semester 1999. It is part of a new multidisciplinary research and education Program on Electronic Commerce and Marketing being developed at Sloan.

Dean Schmalensee said, “Sloan has been a leader in research and education focused on the interactions between technology and management. The School is in an ideal position to bring together the expertise at MIT with students and industry partners to advance both the understanding and practice of electronic commerce.”

The event launched the School’s new community-built web site, which includes a Digital Time Capsule sealed into its cornerstone. Sloan faculty, staff, alumni and business partners proposed and collected digitized artifacts for the capsule that capture the essence and spirit of the Internet and business in early 1999.


You can read the following on Page 6 of Educom Review, September/October 1999:

Schmalensee believes that Sloan, as one of the first business schools to make these adjustments to technology, is a leader in the growing movement toward the Internet. He predicts that those schools and businesses that refuse to embrace the growing Web culture will crumble.


Links to Online Courses and Programs

Online Paradigm Shift in Education
Bob Jensen at Trinity University

Prestige Universities

Prestige Universities and Corporate Partnerships

Corporations Serving Up Credit and Certificate Courses

Online Universities

Graduate Programs


Appendix

Message from Bob Jensen to Trinity University on November 2, 1999
http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/book99q4.htm#prestige 

Some faculty at Trinity University are seeking to model Trinity University on the nation's most elite colleges and universities. My question is whether we should model the "old" or the "new" elite institutions? There is a danger that we will set our mission on outmoded missions and goals. I think there will continue to be a need for full-time resident students --- it's part of the maturation process as well as the education process. But the pedagogy may change and our own curriculum may be salted with top courses from the elite institutions. Perhaps the UCC in the future should study the electronic curriculum of the next millennium.

Perhaps we should also examine how not to be left behind in providing something to the elite electronic curriculum.

It's a dynamic time we live in when a convicted felon and subsequent electronic curriculum leader (Junk Bond King Mike Milken) is named by The Los Angeles Times as one of the top ten people in the 20th Century.

Ivy Online

Elite universities and professional schools are scrambling to "leverage their brands" and make extra money through online education.

See http://www.thestandard.com/articles/display/0,1449,7122,00.html  (thanks for the tip Scott Bonacker)

I provide recent links at http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/book99.htm#PrestigeUniversities 

Also see http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/255wp.htm 


Some excerpts from http://www.thestandard.com/articles/display/0,1449,7122,00.html

Columbia is not alone in its Internet ambitions. The nation's elite universities, long secure in their centuries-old reputations, face a rapidly changing world in which any school, from the University of South Alabama to UC Berkeley, can put its courses online and court a global market for continuing education. Fearing that they will be left behind, Ivy League administrators are becoming dealmakers, and buzz phrases like "leveraging brands" and "tapping intellectual capital" echo from the Stanford Quad to Harvard Square.

In recent months, Stanford, the London School of Economics and other top-tier schools have followed Columbia's lead, signing with UNext to trade their name and curricula for equity in the startup. Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School, meanwhile, have struck deals with Pensare, a Silicon Valley company that creates online courses. Harvard will receive stock warrants in Pensare, as will Duke University, which is licensing a complete MBA curriculum to the company.

(The UNext web site is at http://www.unext.com/ )
(The Pensare web site is at http://www.pensare.com/index.htm )

...

Education As Commodity

Thanks in part to the Net's ability to distribute courses to students anywhere at any time, learning is becoming another commodity, part of the $740 billion "education industry" that has attracted keen interest on Wall Street. Scores of community colleges and universities have embraced distance learning in recent years, putting courses online for people who are too busy or live too far away from institutions to attend classes. Meanwhile, online-only schools, such as the for-profit Jones International University, have emerged to capitalize on the growing demand for adult education.

The ultimate "brand" in education is a Harvard, a Stanford, a Columbia degree; the ultimate market for those schools is overseas, where there's a relative surfeit of universities and the names Harvard and Stanford are as recognized in corporate circles as Coca-Cola and Pepsi. But the Ivys have been late to move online, reluctant to put their jealously guarded reputations in the hands of the private partners that are needed to provide the technology and financing to create Internet courses.

Helen Chen is the type of potential student the top-tier schools covet but could lose to more wired competitors. The 32-year-old Harvard graduate wants to obtain an MBA but expects she'll have to do so online because the demands of her job at consulting firm Mitchell Madison Group prevent her from attending a traditional program. But Chen is still looking to enroll at a top-ranked school. "I have a pretty good undergraduate education and I don't want to get just any MBA attached to my name," she says.

The needs of people like Chen are forcing elite universities to embrace the Internet, acknowledges Harvard Business School Dean Kim Clark. "Education used to be done in the early stage of someone's life and maybe once or twice after that," he says. "We are moving into an era where organizations are much more fluid, the pace of change is much faster and much more international. There's much more need for just-in-time, just-right education. The Internet is becoming central to education because it allows you to meet these kinds of needs."

There are other motivators, however, behind university administrators' enthusiasm for the Net. For decades, they have watched professors transform the knowledge they acquired in the university's employ into royalties from books that publishers then sell back to the universities. Now that this gold mine of intellectual property can be packaged and sold online, universities are determined to share in the profits. "The idea that all of this content – we used to call it teaching and learning – can be turned into content with an economic value is extraordinary," says Geoffrey Cox, a Stanford University vice provost. "Frankly, if anyone is going to get the economic value of that, it will be the university."


The following indented quotation appears in the November/December 1999 issue of Educom Review, pg. 4. It is not yet posted to the web, but eventually it will be available at http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm.html

WELCOME TO COLLEGE: NOW MEET OUR SPONSOR

The University of Memphis, the University of Idaho, Villanova University, and more than five hundred other institutions of higher learning will be receiving free intranet service in return for allowing their campus Web pages to be used for advertising purposes.  Allowing commercial control of the Web pages and e-mail services of what was once considered a sacred domain -- academia -- is resulting in contentious debate.  However, many universities, particularly public ones that have seen their budgets shrink rapidly but that still must keep up with technological trends to attract students, say the concept is too attractive to resist.  The cost for a medium-sized public university to create an internal Web service could be more than $2 million.  This is where Campus Pipeline comes in.  The startup, which is heavily invested in by Dell Computer, Sun Microsystems, and McKinney & Company, among other firms, began offering to set up campus Web sites for colleges late last year.  The cost has been free so far to the few campuses that have already had the systems installed, but Campus Pipeline may charge colleges installation costs of as much as $32,000 in the future.  (New York Times)

Some people are not exactly sure about just what an "intranet" is and how it relates to the Internet. The concept is really quite simple. When a system of web pages can be accessed by anyone in the world over the Internet we call this an Internet or web system. When access is controlled to a system of web pages, the Internet system becomes an intranet. For example, if a professor delivers web pages on the Internet but requires a password for viewing those documents, she or he has created an intranet. My students in Accounting Information Systems are assigned chapters of an online Cybertext textbook and must take weekly online quizzes delivered across the Internet from http://www.cybertext.com. Since they must purchase a password to access the book and quizzes, this Internet system of documents is called an "intranet."

I always suspected that large universities would eventually accept advertising revenues to help finance their enormously expensive web/intranet systems and their IT systems in general. I was a little surprised to discover that over 500 colleges and universities are now financing IT through advertising. It may well be that boards of trustees will consider it an oversight if other colleges and universities are not considering this relatively simple source of added funding for IT services.

Advertising in education is distasteful at first blush. Students have no choice other than to endure the advertising as part of earning a grade in a course.  There is no freedom of choice once they are enrolled in a course.  There is no freedom of choice for many courses if the advertising is across the university.  However, there are advantages. As the quotation above points out, IT budgets at universities are never adequate in this era of zooming technology changes. Cybertext currently does not have advertising in its online books. But if Cybertext did start accepting advertising revenues, the company might be able to significantly reduce the prices of accessing books. Thus, the good news is that universities and publishers can reduce product prices and/or increase the quality of product and service with those added revenues. The bad news is that students may really grow weary of the advertisements.

There are also possible conflicts of interest and ethical considerations. If a publisher allows advertising, will that publisher advertise products of a major competitor? Will Villanova University accept advertising from Drexel University? Or one day might there be a banner on Villanova's homepage that reads "Learn for less at Temple University?"  I pointed out previously that CNext and Pensare will soon be providing undergraduate/graduate courses and complete degree programs from elite universities such as Columbia, Stanford, Chicago, Penn, Duke, Harvard, and the London School of Economics. Will CNext one day agree to advertise Pensare courses and will Pensare agree to advertise CNext courses? You can find my discussion and links to CNext and Pensare at http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/book99.htm#PrestigeUniversities 

I like this quotation from The November/December 1999 issue of Educom Review, pg. 16.  It is not yet posted to the web, but eventually it will be available at http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm.html.

The telegraph, when invented by Samuel Morse on a government grant, was described by Nathaniel Hawthorne as a thing that would wrap the world in a great nerve of intelligence.  And the reason this did not happen, except in the high-end business community, and the reason the telegraph was fundamentally used by railroads and insurance agents and armies as opposed to people and education is that throughout the nineteenth century, the average price for communication by telegraph was one dollar per word.   The great revolution that we have now has that technological character but also has an economic character.

Advertising will most certainly make educational intranets more affordable to billions of people on earth.  I have experimented with every new device that "supposedly" suppresses advertising on television --- my conclusion is that no device works very well. But think about this for a minute. If a device comes on the market that works well at suppressing television and/or PC advertising, it follows that advertising will no longer underwrite the content development and distribution . Every show will become a direct pay-for-view or my cable/satellite monthly fee will jump to $500 per month.  Web sites that depend upon advertising may disappear from the Internet.  Three cheers for advertising. Down with inventors of devices that suppress advertising.


Is the University of Phoenix really better positioned for the 21st Century than "many non-elite, especially private, traditional academic institutions?"

"Remaking the Academy", by Jorge Klor de Alva, Educause Review, March/April 2000, pp. 21-40.
 http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0023.pdf  

As education moves toward the certification of competence with a focus on demonstrated skills and knowledge— that is, on “what you know” rather than on “what you have taken” in school—more associations and organizations that can prove themselves worthy to the U.S. Education Department will likely be able to gain accreditation. This increased competition worldwide—from, for instance, corporate universities, training companies, course content aggregators, and publisher media conglomerates—will put a premium on the ability of institutions not only to provide quality education but to do so on a continuous and highly distributed basis and with convenient access for those seeking information, testing, and certification. In short, as education becomes a continuous process of certification—that is, a lifelong process of earning certificates attesting to the accumulation of new skills and competencies—institutional success for any higher education enterprise will depend more on successful marketing, solid quality assurance and control systems, and effective use of the new media than on production and communication of knowledge. This is a shift that I believe University of Phoenix is well positioned to undertake, but I am less confident that many non-elite, especially private, traditional academic institutions will manage to survive successfully.

That glum conclusion leads me to a final observation: societies everywhere expect from higher education institutions the provision of an education that can permit them to flourish in the changing global economic landscape. Those institutions that can continually change, keeping up with the needs of the transforming economy they serve, will survive. Those that cannot or will not change will become irrelevant, will condemn misled masses to second class economic status or poverty, and will ultimately die, probably at the hands of those they chose to delude by serving up an education for a nonexistent world. Policy Issues for the New Millennium March 30–31, 2000 Washington, D.C., Renaissance Hotel Networking 2000 is the premier conference on federal policy affecting networking and information technology for higher education. The conference engages higher education and government policy leaders in constructive dialogue on the latest policy issues posed by information technology and network development. Detailed information and an online registration form for Networking 2000 are available at Deadline for early registration: www.educause.edu/netatedu/contents/events/mar2000/

I don't think Jeoge Klor de Alva and I agree on the roles of what I called Type 2 (onsite) versus Type 1 (online) universities in the 21st Century.  I wrote the following in the April 4, 2000 edition of New Bookmarks at http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen/book00q2.htm#EducationIntangibles 

Education Intangibles:  
Will accountants "rule the world" of the future of educational institutions?

I was challenged by the recent TigerTalk exchanges on the emerging dominance of economics and accounting in higher education.  Although I still have hundreds of unopened email messages, I did encounter messages from Dr. Spinks (English) and Dr. Meyer (Director of Trinity University's Library)

Unfortunately, I agree that accountants should never "rule the world."  Actually business firms and educational institutions have much more in common than non-accountants tend to realize.  The race of Ivy League institutions to capitalize on their logos by partnering with corporations like UNext and Pensare is only the tip of the iceberg in this age of technology.  But the value of their logos and other assets cannot be realistically accounted for due to the many intangibles that defy accounting. 

If you aggregate all the prices of all the shares of companies traded in the world markets, the tangible assets that accountants account for on balance sheets tally up to only 17% of business "value."  The other 83% is comprised of intangible assets (largely a business firm's human resources, intellectual capital, organizational synergy, name recognition, goodwill, leadership, and R&D) that we do a miserable job of accounting for in business firms. In not-for-profit organizations, and especially educational institutions, accountants perform  even worse, because the proportion of intangible assets is even higher in those institutions.  Anyone interested in problems of accounting for intangibles should take a look at http://www.fastcompany.com/online/31/lev.html 

The problem with curriculum design is that it tries to turn intangibles into tangibles.   For instance, the term "Western Culture" is intangible and ambiguous. Adding specific courses with specific content to the "Western Culture Curriculum" is in some sense an attempt to "account for" what qualifies as tangible learning of an intangible topic.  In spite of our efforts to declare these "tangible" curriculum requirements, intangibles in the curriculum and other areas of living and learning dominate as much or more as intangibles dominate in business firm valuation.  In this context, curriculum design is a form of accounting for intangibles that becomes more and more hopeless as we attempt to turn intangibles into tangibles.

I think we give Trinity University students the full measure of what they bargained for even if they don't realize all they bargained for when they first appear on campus. The curriculum is only a part, albeit vital part, of living and learning while they are here. It is generally the most stressful aspect of college life, because satisfying the curriculum is where students discover that there is so much to be learned, and so little time in which to learn, from faculty with integrity and standards for demonstrating that learning takes place at equal or higher levels relative to our own peer competitors. To do anything less would be the real "bait and switch," because if the curriculum becomes too easy or irrelevant in changing times, then respect for a Trinity degree plunges.

The point here is that if you base predictions on 17% or less of the "total" data, then you hardly stand on sound footing for making predictions. One of the main problems accountants have in dealing with intangibles is that, relative to tangible assets, intangible assets are very fragile. Today you have them, but tomorrow they may disappear without even being stolen in a legal sense. For example, I suspect that Bill Gates is far less concerned about the anti-trust lawsuit than he is about emerging signs of inability of Microsoft's "intangibles" to prosper in a networked world of e-Commerce, ubiquitous computing, and wireless technologies.  Virtually all universities have been shocked by the paradigm shift in distance learning and are now worried about whether their "intangibles" can prosper in the new "McLearn" paradigm.

Having said this, I think that there will be two types of higher education institutions in the future.  Type 1 will be run like a business whether it is a corporation or a traditional university with web training and education programs.  This is what I will call a McLearn online university.  Type 2 is a traditional onsite university brimming with more intangibles.

McLearn online universities (or traditional universities operating like businesses) will provide certificate and degree programs from anywhere in the world. They will be very efficient and reasonably effective for topical coverage. The world will flock to them just as the world flocks to fast food restaurants for convenience, price, efficiency, and sometimes a craving for the food itself (e.g. a taco salad or a milk shake) that just seems right for the time. They may also have nutritious items on the menu. See Maitre d'Igital's cafe at http://www.technos.net/.  In the same context, McLearn's online knowledge bases will proliferate and become spectacular due to the billions of dollars that will be available for building such knowledge bases.

Business is not an evil thing per se.  Outstanding research takes place in the private sector as well as the public sector. Outstanding performances (music, theatre, film, etc.) take place in the private sector as well as the public sector. Even though we view Hollywood as blatantly commercial, some of our finest works of art have appeared in commercial films. The power of films and television to impact upon culture is both magnificent and scary.  On the magnificent side, do you think there ever has been anything more powerful than Hollywood in fighting bigotry in the hearts and minds of succeeding generations following the Civil War?  The same will be said, ultimately, for global and life-long learning in McLearn online universities.  In fact, for certain types of learning there is little doubt that corporations can and are doing a better job than the public sector (e.g., the success of Motorola University in delivering technical engineering training and education to the Far East.  See http://mu.motorola.com/.)

Be that as it may, McLearn online universities will have a difficult time putting together a cost-effective total education menu that competes with Type 2 onsite universities like Trinity University. This is largely due to intangibles that lie outside the grasp of McLearn online curriculum.  It happens that some of our best Type 2 onsite students are also varsity athletes, musicians, actors, etc. Athletic competition and artistic performances are part and parcel to living and learning for many students.  McLearn universities may have online debates and chess competitions, but these will never take the place of the roar of the fans, slapping your buddy on the butt with a wet towel, getting chewed out by a tempered coach, having your boyfriend or girlfriend in the audience even if you only have a bit part in a performance, etc.  McLearn online university will probably never find a way of making a bottom-line profit on building and running a chapel, having faculty that students consider friends as well as teachers, and having students learn about what real life is all about with loves gained and lost, living in rumor mills, enduring insults, helping someone who has lost the way, and learning to deal with greater diversities in life styles, and cultures.

Accountants will not rule the world at large. And curriculum designers will not rule the university at large. We are only bit players in immense productions in Type 2 onsite universities.  And we may need some of those cursed marketing metaphors that indicate how living and learning universities differ from learning universities.  Providing a student with a chapel, a theatre, a concert hall, a playing field, a dormitory, and a geology professor named Glenn Kroeger can all be described as a "service" in a broad sense.  Students are our "clients" in a very broad sense.  But neither our "service" nor our "clients" constitute very good business in an accounting sense, because more than 83% of the value of our service to clients is intangible and subject to circumstances outside our control.  Serendipity rules supreme in a Type 2 onsite education.   There's no accounting for serendipity.  What we do best is to create an environment where serendipity has more opportunity.  Perhaps this is one of the main distinctions between training and education.  In this context, curriculum design is necessary to a point but should never become too structured or too specific as a "tangible" asset in either the online or the onsite universities.

Bob (Robert E.) Jensen Jesse H. Jones Distinguished Professor of Business Trinity University, San Antonio, TX 78212 Voice: (210) 999-7347 Fax: (210) 999-8134 Email: rjensen@trinity.edu  http://www.trinity.edu/rjensen 

-----Original Message----- From: c. w. spinks [mailto:cspinks@Trinity.edu]  
Sent: Friday, March 31, 2000 12:44 PM 
To: rmeyer@Trinity.edu; tigertalk@Trinity.edu Subject: 
RE: Windmill #3: Blade 3 (marketing metaphors)

Nah, Rich, I'm not caught . If a University is an economic enterprise like a corporation, then it may be true, but that was my whole point, the university ain't that kinda beast.

Beside economic theorists don't really have a outstanding track record on predictions, definitions, or stipulations. What else would you expect of folk who have expropriated an energy quotient into economic theory? Efficiency (other than in a physical sense as an energy quotient) is still metaphoric and as hard to define as "service" and equally in need of clarification of its hidden assumptions.

If accountants rule the world, I am sure "bottom-line" is a primary value, and if these economic theorists (not all are efficiency readers), then I am sure efficiency is the primary value, but neither set of rules is privileged to the point of disallowing discussion of the consequences of the rules.

I surely will be caught in one of these verbal spins as my own gaminess collapses, but I don't think so yet.

bill

-----Original Message----- 
From: owner-tigertalk@Trinity.Edu [mailto:owner-tigertalk@Trinity.Edu
On Behalf Of Richard Meyer 
Sent: Friday, March 31, 2000 12:03 PM 
To: tigertalk@TRINITY.EDU  Subject: RE: Windmill #3: Blade 3 (marketing metaphors)

-- snip--

Alas, Bill, you may be stuck. Economic theory predicts that institutions that emerge do so as the result of their provision of greater efficiency. The consumer metaphor may be the most efficient one to communicate the concept of a university. -- Rich

 

 

 

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